Monday, March 3rd, 2008
Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings intended to reveal the mystical aspects of Judaism. Followers of Kabbalah consider its teachings to be the true meaning of Judaism, whereas other Jews consider the doctrines of Kabbalah to be heretical. Kabbalists believe Jewish mysticism originated in Eden, although historians have noted that virtually all Kabbalistic works falsely claim, or are ascribed, ancient authorship. Kabbalists believe that over time, Jewish patriarchs, prophets, and sages interwove their knowledge into Jewish writings and culture through oral transmission, resulting in the current teachings and practices.
Kabbalists believe that in ancient Israel in the 10th century BCE, the teachings of Kabbalah were common knowledge and practiced by over one million people. However, there is very little historical evidence to support this. They believe that the Jewish spiritual leaders at that time (the Sanhedrin) were forced to hide these teachings, because foreign conquests posed a risk that the information might fall into the wrong hands. The Sanhedrin also feared that Jews who were deported on conquest to other countries would be led to practice in incorrect and forbidden ways without proper supervision and guidance by the masters. As a result, they believe the Kabbalah became secretive and forbidden for two and a half millennia.
The Zohar, a mystical commentary on the Torah written in medieval Aramaic, is widely considered the most important work of Kabbalah. Torah study is considered an inherent duty of observant Jews, and the Zohar divides this study into four levels. Peshat is the simple meaning of the text. Remez refers to biblical allusion and allegory. Derash is Rabbinic scriptural exegesis. And finally, Sod is the secret inner meaning of the Torah, i.e. the kabbalah. Kabbalah teaches that there are hidden meanings contained in every Hebrew letter, word, number, and even the accent on words in the Hebrew Bible. Kabbalists practice methods such as Gematria to attempt to ascertain these hidden meanings.
Another famous work, and possibly the earliest extant book on Jewish esotericism, is the Sefer Yetzirah, which kabbalists claim dates back to the patriarch Abraham. Also revered is astro-magical text the Sefer Raziel HaMalach which, according to kabbalists, was revealed to Adam by the angel Raziel. Yet, the Sefer Raziel HaMalach draws heavily from the Sefer Yetzirah, and it cannot be shown to predate the 13th century. Skeptical scholars find attempts to date these works to the pre-Israelite Ancient Near East to be implausible. Much of the central doctrine did not begin to develop seriously until the 12th century CE, and it seems far-fetched to believe that this doctrine existed undocumented within Judaism from the time of the Assyrian empire (which, ironically, some scholars believe is the source of Jewish mysticism) until it “resurfaced” approximately 17 to 18 centuries later.
Kabbalists can be defined as monistic panentheists. They envision two aspects of God, (a) God Himself, whom they consider to be impersonal and unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God that created the universe and interacts with mankind. They believe God’s existence is beyond anything that can be expressed in the material world, yet they believe all things are linked to God in perfect unity. Rather than viewing these two aspects as a paradox, Kabbalists believe that through divine emanations they can come to see how they complement one another.
Kabbalah teaches that there are ten attributes with which God created the universe and reveals Himself, called the Ten Sefirot (literally, the Ten Emanations). Kabbalists believe that the differences between these levels are not changes in God but in mankind’s ability to perceive God. The ten levels are: Keter (will), Chochmah (wisdom), Binah (understanding), Chesed (loving kindness), Din (judgment), Tiferet (harmony), Netzach (victory), Hod (glory), Yesod (foundation), and Malchut (sovereignty).
The Zohar teaches that there are three elements to the human soul: the nefesh, which is the lower “animal” part of the soul linked to instincts and bodily cravings, the ruach, the middle “spirit” soul containing moral virtues, and the neshamah, the higher “intellect” soul, which allows one to have awareness of God and to benefit from the afterlife. The nefesh is said to enter the body at birth, whereas the ruach and neshamah are said to develop over time depending on the actions and beliefs of the individual. Most Kabbalistic works assume a fundamental difference between Jewish and non-Jewish souls. The Zohar posits that Gentile souls have an evil, demonic aspect to them that is not present in Jews. Two additional parts of the soul, the chayyah (awareness of the divine life force) and yehidah (fullest union with God possible), are mentioned in the Raaya Meheimna, a section of teachings spread throughout the Zohar, but these higher levels of cognition are considered to be within the grasp of only a few chosen individuals.
-Laura
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Thursday, February 7th, 2008
In the late 19th century, Charles Taze Russell, an American Protestant Evangelist from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, founded a religious movement known as the Bible Student movement. He and his followers believed mainstream Christianity had been corrupted and that their movement was a restoration of first-century Christianity. Russell was greatly interested in Biblical prophecy and came to adopt the eschatology of Nelson H. Barbour, who predicted Christ would return in 1873. When Barbour’s prediction failed, he revised the year to 1874. After this second disappointment, he decided Christ had indeed returned that year but had done so invisibly in heaven. Russell adopted this belief and together with Barbour wrote the book The Three Worlds, in which they described their belief that in 1878 there would be a gathering of the saints to heaven and that 1914 would mark the end of Gentile control of Jerusalem and the end of rule by “human” governments.
In 1879, Russell broke ties with Barbour and began publishing his own magazine, Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence (now known as The Watchtower.) Russell then established Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881, a legal entity which still advises today’s Jehovah’s Witnesses. “The Society” published a series of seven books (six written by Russell) entitled Studies in the Scriptures. The early editions of these books mirrored many of Barbour’s claims, such as the “invisible” second coming of Jesus in 1874, a year he believed was marked by the lengths of the internal passages of the great pyramid of Egypt. Russell wrote that the great pyramid at Gizeh is God’s Stone Witness and Prophet and that the Pleiades star cluster is the place of the eternal throne of God.
After Russell’s death in 1916, there was a struggle for power amongst the Board of Directors for The Society. The group that followed the original Watch Tower Society adopted the name “Jehovah’s Witnesses,” in reference to Isaiah 43:10: “Ye are my witnesses, saith the LORD, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me.” The name Jehovah is an English form of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton YHWH, and Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that making this name known to others is a requirement for true worship.
Most people are probably familiar with Jehovah’s Witnesses through their proselytization efforts. Witnesses are required to devote as much time as possible to going door-to-door, distributing literature from the Watchtower publications. In order to be considered members, they must report monthly on the time they’ve spent preaching. In 2007, Jehovah’s Witnesses reported an attendance of over 17 million at their annual memorial celebration of Christ’s death. However, these are merely considered adherents. About 7 million are considered worthy of the title member.
The memorial celebration, held in March or April, is their most important annual event and the only celebration they believe is sanctioned by the Bible. They typically do observe weddings, funerals and anniversaries, but religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Thanksgiving and Christmas are considered unchristian and are not celebrated. They consider such celebrations, as well as patriotism, to be tantamount to worshipping an idol. They are expected to obey the laws of the country in which they reside, but they refuse to serve in the military, salute any flag, or sing any nationalistic songs.
Jehovah’s Witnesses consider the Bible to be the inspired word of God and do interpret many scriptures literally, but they believe that much of it is merely symbolic. They consider the New World translation, first published by their own Watchtower Bible and Tract Society in 1950, to be the most correct translation. They rely on a “Governing Body” of Jehovah’s Witnesses to interpret scripture correctly and are not permitted to interpret anything themselves. They are forbidden from reading any material that is not sanctioned by the Watchtower Society, and they are strongly discouraged from attending colleges and universities.
Jehovah’s Witnesses believe Jesus‘ death was necessary to atone for the sins brought upon the world by Adam and that he is the means of salvation for all those who are worthy, but they reject the doctrine of the Trinity, believing that Jesus is the archangel Michael and God’s first creation. Instead of a cross, they believe he died on a “torture stake.” They line up with typical conservative Christians in believing that homosexuality and premarital sex are sins, abortion is murder, gambling is sinful, and the husband is considered the final authority in the family structure. They believe that a war of Armageddon is imminent wherein the wicked will be destroyed. They differ from most Christians in that they believe blood is not to be eaten, stored, or transfused. Any Jehovah’s Witness who accepts a blood transfusion will be subject to organized communal shunning, and many have chosen death because of this. They also differ in that they do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment, instead believing that the wicked that die are truly dead and have no consciousness. They believe that only 144,000 people will get to heaven and that these will be co-rulers with Jesus over the rest of the humans who manage to survive the Armageddon. Since many have already died whom they consider to be worthy of heaven, the vast majority of Jehovah’s Witnesses expect to live eternally on the earth, after it is renewed to a paradisiacal state, not in heaven.
-Laura
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