State of Protest

The New York Times recently had an op-ed about the Vatican and its new concern about how it appoints saints “Trials of the Saints.”¹ Saints, per the Roman Catholic Church, have magical powers to heal, etc. Most times, this healing happens after they are dead.

One would think that determining the actuator of a “miraculous” event, when very dead and at best now only “spirit” and therefore invisible, might be rather difficult. However, the RCC insists that it has very rigorous procedures to determine whether saint-caused miracles are “real.” In the article, Mr. Martin says that the Vatican uses “teams of doctors (not all of them Catholic) who assiduously rule out any other cause for a healing.” The Congregation for the Causes of Saints does not have the document mentioned in the article up at the time of this writing² However, an earlier document, New Laws for the Causes of Saints, states, “34. a) In the case of a cure from some disease, the Bishop or his delegate is to seek help from a physician, who is to propose questions to the witnesses in order to clarify matters according to necessity and circumstances. b) If the person healed is still alive, he is to be examined by experts so that the duration of the healing can be ascertained.³ It does not mention that any of the doctors need to be not Catholic, and I suspect, without corroborating evidence, that those non-Catholic physicians are few and far between. After this review by experts, the following occurs: “14) The Congregation examines cases of alleged miracles in the following way: 1. The Relator assigned to this task is to prepare a Position on alleged miracles. They are discussed in a meeting of experts (in the case of healings, in a meeting of physicians), whose votes and conclusions are set forth in an accurate report. 2. Then the miracles are to be discussed in the special meeting of the theologians and, finally, in that of the Cardinals and Bishops.”⁴ There is nothing that requires the Cardinals and Bishops to accept the findings of the physicians. I have yet to find any definitive information on what standards the bishops and cardinals use. I have also not found out how they determine a particular miracle can really be assigned to a particular candidate. It seems to be only determined by who the miracle-claimant said that they most recently prayed to for healing. Truly, I suppose that’s the only possible way to figure it out, without the use of a PKE meter.

We can see that there is a built in prejudice for the acceptance of saints. We see that Pope Benedict has stated that “The evidence for the causes is collected and studied with supreme care and with a diligent search for the historic truth through testimonies and documentary proof “omnino plenae,” for they have no other aim than the glory of God and the spiritual good of the Church and of all who are in search of the Gospel truth and perfection.”⁵ People with “no other aim” are indeed prejudiced in favor of the RCC. If they were perhaps claimed to have “no other aim” than the truth, perhaps one could more confidently accept what they aver.

I can agree with Mr. Martin in that the RCC must be very careful in how it presents its saints and should endeavor to be very meticulous in its examinations. However, since most “miracles” come from countries with poor health care and record keeping, how can a doctor, or any person really be assured that a miracle occurred? How many recipients of “miracles” have medical records that support their claims of imminent death? Why are there no “miracles” that have the regrowth of an amputated limb, surely not beyond the capabilities of saints who can supposedly cure horrific cancers? Why is the most stringent requirement of the beatification/canonization process the determination of witnesses to be “trustworthy” by members of the Church? If one could actually find any evidence that miracles were “serious scientific business” as Mr. Martin claims, if we could see the reports, etc., I’m sure it would be “more difficult for agnostics and atheists to disbelieve.” However, that has not happened for the last 2000+ years and I doubt it ever will.

1. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/03/opini … ref=slogin [↩]
2. http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congr … s/csaints/ [↩]
3. http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congr … me_en.html [↩]
4. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_ … er_en.html [↩]
5. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/bened … ti_en.html [↩]

Human beings seem to have a natural desire to want to be rewarded for their good deeds and punished for the bad (well, to see others punished, anyways).  The comforting concept of an end to all suffering after we die, of an infinite paradise, is simply not enough.  People want justice.  They want to know that all the rapists and murderers, the drunken fathers, the bullies that picked on them in school, the neighbors who have wild parties while they abstain, and of course the heathen unbelievers (especially them) are all going to have to someday pay.  Let’s take a look at some of the different ways in which people believe their fellow humans will eventually suffer.

Judaism

Although Judaism does not have a specific doctrine regarding an afterlife, the Tanakh makes many references to Gehenna, or Sheol, which is believed to be a sort of purgatory for the dead, and there is a mystical tradition of describing it.  The word Gehenna was derived from the Valley of Hinnom outside of Jerusalem, which was where the ancient Israelites sacrificed children, and later it was used as a dump for burning garbage and had a terrible stench.  This fiery place became a metaphor for the entrance to Hell.¹  Gehenna is not considered to be a physical place, but rather a feeling of intense shame and awareness of one’s sins.  Some believe that the soul is purified in Gehenna, which allows the soul to ascend to Olam Ha-Ba, which can be compared to the Christian Heaven.²  Very few Jews believe that existence in Gehenna can be permanent, with most believing the longest stay possible is eleven months.  The Kabbalah describes Gehenna as a “waiting room.”

Christianity

The Christian concept of Hell stems from the apocalyptic sections of the New Testament.  Revelation 20: 11-15 describes a “great white throne” before which all the dead must stand to be judged on their actions in life.  Those who do not make the cut are thrown into a lake of fire to burn eternally.  Many portrayals of Hell depict demons who torture the damned.  Matthew 13: 42 states there will be “weeping and gnashing of teeth.”  Many Christians believe Hell is located in the Earth’s core, since Ephesians 4: 9 mentions the “lower parts of the earth.”  Some actually believe that the screams of the tormented can be heard in erupting volcanoes.³  Satan is considered to be the ruler of Hell in most denominations, although some believe Saint Peter is Hell’s keeper.  Few denominations can come to a consensus on which sins make a person worthy of Hell’s fiery torture, but it is almost universally believed that anyone who is not a Christian will meet that fate.

Islam

The Islamic concept of Hell is called Jahannam, and it is very similar to that of Christianity in that it is generally portrayed as hot and fiery.  However, Hell’s fate is not considered to be infinite but rather a basis for spiritual rectification, and the devil (shaitan) is not its ruler, just a tortured soul like the rest.⁴  Also, there are considered to be many levels of Hell depending on the degree of a person’s transgressions in life.  The lowest pit of Hell is called Hawiyah, and it is reserved for those who exhibit hypocrisy, which is considered to be the worst of all sins.  According to the Qur’an, anyone who claims to believe in Allah but denounces Him in his or her heart will end up in Hawiyah.  There is also one pit of Hell, called Zamhareer, which is not fiery but freezing.  The tree of Zaqqum is believed to bear thorny, bitter fruit, which the souls of the damned are compelled to eat, furthering their torment.⁵

Buddhism

Several different versions of Hell, or Naraka, are believed to exist in the major Buddhist schools of thought.  A person with enough negative karma can be reborn into one of these Narakas.  Existence in these realms is temporary, although beings are thought to be held there for vast stretches of time.  One of the most common schemes for describing the various torments is that of the Eight Cold Narakas and the Eight Hot Narakas.  The cold Narakas depict such tortures as being naked and alone in perpetual blizzards, shivering uncontrollably, forming blisters which burst open, and having the skin or even the entire body crack open, leaving one raw and bloody.  The hot Narakas include suffering such as being attacked with iron claws or fiery weapons, being sliced into pieces, being crushed into a bloody jelly by molten metal, being impaled on a fiery spear, and being roasted in a blazing oven.  Buddhists also believe that Hell can be a state of consciousness in which one suffers because of one’s actions.⁶

Hinduism

Hindu literature also speaks of Naraka (Neraka in Hinduism), although not in quite as gory detail as the Buddhist literature.  It is believed that at the time of death, souls who have sinned may be captured by the servants of Yama, the Lord of Justice.  Yama will deem the appropriate punishment for the sinner which, as in Buddhism, is temporary.  When the punishment is complete, Hindus believe the soul will be reborn on Earth in a human or animal body.  Some Hindus do not accept the existence of the Nerakas, or consider their descriptions to be metaphorical.⁷

1. http://www.pantheon.org/articles/g/gehenna.html [↩]
2. http://www.jewfaq.org/olamhaba.htm [↩]
3. Haraldur Sigurdsson, Melting the Earth, The History of Ideas on Volcanic Eruptions, p. 73 [↩]
4. William C. Chittick, Imaginal Worlds: Ibn al-Arab and the Problem of Religious Diversity, 1994 [↩]
5. Qur’an 44.43-46 [↩]
6. http://www.sikhsangat.com/index.php?showtopic=32187 [↩]
7. http://vedabase.net/en1 [↩]

When West African slaves were forcibly transported to the Caribbean and Central and South America to work the sugar plantations beginning in the 16^th century, they brought with them many religious traditions.  Despite being forced to convert to Christianity by their Roman Catholic masters, they were able to preserve many of their ancestral and traditional beliefs by fusing them with elements of Christian culture.  This religious tradition, specifically those beliefs and practices derived from the Lukumi religion of the Yoruba people of Nigeria, has evolved into what is now known as Santería (or, “the Way of the Saints”).¹  Santería was originally a derisive term the Spanish used to mock the African slaves’ apparent over-devotion to the Catholic saints.  Yet, what they perceived as devotion to the saints was actually a devotion to their own sacred orishas, spiritual beings who represent the forces of nature and are considered to be manifestations of the creator.  The Lukumi people disguised their orishas as Catholic saints in order to avoid persecution.²

One has to be initiated into Santería before information about it is freely released.  However, we do know some things about their beliefs, rituals, and practices.  They believe in a supreme deity and creator of the universe, whom they refer to as Olofi, Olorun, or Olódùmarè (owner of heaven).³  They hold no specific belief in a devil.  Rather than viewing the universe in terms of good and evil, they see all things as having positive aspects (Iré) and negative aspects (Ibi).  Good character (Iwapele) is defined as doing what is right simply because it is right, rather than out of fear of retribution or hope of reward.

All ceremonies and rituals of the Lukumi tradition begin by paying homage to one’s ancestors, called Ara Orun (People of Heaven).  The Ara Orun are held in high esteem and are referred to for moral guidance.  Animal sacrifice is a common practice during rituals, and this has caused some controversy among animal rights activists.  Chickens are the most common sacrifice, and followers of Santería claim their priests and priestesses are trained to perform these ritual sacrifices in safe and humane ways.  Only the blood of the chickens is offered to the orishas, while the meat is cooked and consumed by the community.  These sacrifices are believed to bring good luck, purification and forgiveness of sins.  Trees are also offered to the orishas.  Another controversial ritual involves sprinkling elemental mercury around the home, which vaporizes and can expose those who reside in the household.⁴

The hierarchical structure of Santería is arranged according to priesthood level and authority.  The priests and priestesses who govern the Orisha temples are known as Babalorishas (fathers of Orisha) and Iyalorishas (mothers of Orisha).  They are also referred to as Santeros(as) and represent the second level in the hierarchical structure.  The top level is reserved for priests of Ifa, who are considered to be Orishas of prophecy, wisdom, and all knowledge.  Ifa priests are given titles such as Babalawo (father who knows the secrets) and Iyanifa (mother of destiny).  Initiates must train for several years in the oral traditions of the faith and undergo a period of solitude in order to become Santeros(as). They are taught the traditional drum music, songs and dances of their ancestors, which are considered forms of prayer to the orishas.  This music is said to induce trance-like states in the initiated Santeros(as), allowing them to channel the orishas, heal the sick, and transmit information to the community.

The practice of Santería in Cuba was actively suppressed in the 1960s during the communist revolution, but its popularity exploded in the 1990s.  Most of today’s Cuban followers of Santería also consider themselves to be Catholics.  They often hold separate rituals to honor the saints and the orishas, even though the disguise of Catholicism is no longer needed.  Adherents are currently concentrated in Cuba and other Caribbean islands, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, France, the Netherlands, and the Hispanic populations of Florida, Puerto Rico, New Jersey, New York City and Los Angeles.  There are now Santerían stores in many of these areas, called Botanicas, which sell charms, herbs, potions, musical instruments, and other supplies used in the practice of Santería.  Estimates as to the number of adherents varies widely.⁵

1. http://www.santeriareligion101.com/ [↩]
2. Ernesto Pichardo, Santería in Contemporary Cuba: The individual life and condition of the priesthood [↩]
3. http://www.religioustolerance.org/santeri3.htm [↩]
4. Technical Report: Mercury in the Environment: Implications for Pediatricians [↩]
5. http://www.religioustolerance.org/santeri2.htm [↩]

Kabbalah is a set of esoteric teachings intended to reveal the mystical aspects of Judaism.  Followers of Kabbalah consider its teachings to be the true meaning of Judaism, whereas other Jews consider the doctrines of Kabbalah to be heretical.  Kabbalists believe Jewish mysticism originated in Eden, although historians have noted that virtually all Kabbalistic works falsely claim, or are ascribed, ancient authorship.  Kabbalists believe that over time, Jewish patriarchs, prophets, and sages interwove their knowledge into Jewish writings and culture through oral transmission, resulting in the current teachings and practices.

Kabbalists believe that in ancient Israel in the 10^th century BCE, the teachings of Kabbalah were common knowledge and practiced by over one million people.  However, there is very little historical evidence to support this.¹  They believe that the Jewish spiritual leaders at that time (the Sanhedrin) were forced to hide these teachings, because foreign conquests posed a risk that the information might fall into the wrong hands.  The Sanhedrin also feared that Jews who were deported on conquest to other countries would be led to practice in incorrect and forbidden ways without proper supervision and guidance by the masters.  As a result, they believe the Kabbalah became secretive and forbidden for two and a half millennia.

The Zohar, a mystical commentary on the Torah written in medieval Aramaic, is widely considered the most important work of Kabbalah.  Torah study is considered an inherent duty of observant Jews,² and the Zohar divides this study into four levels.  Peshat is the simple meaning of the text.  Remez refers to biblical allusion and allegory.  Derash is Rabbinic scriptural exegesis.  And finally, Sod is the secret inner meaning of the Torah, i.e. the kabbalah.³  Kabbalah teaches that there are hidden meanings contained in every Hebrew letter, word, number, and even the accent on words in the Hebrew Bible.  Kabbalists practice methods such as Gematria to attempt to ascertain these hidden meanings.

Another famous work, and possibly the earliest extant book on Jewish esotericism, is the Sefer Yetzirah, which kabbalists claim dates back to the patriarch Abraham.  Also revered is astro-magical text the Sefer Raziel HaMalach which, according to kabbalists, was revealed to Adam by the angel Raziel.  Yet, the Sefer Raziel HaMalach draws heavily from the Sefer Yetzirah, and it cannot be shown to predate the 13^th century.  Skeptical scholars find attempts to date these works to the pre-Israelite Ancient Near East to be implausible.  Much of the central doctrine did not begin to develop seriously until the 12^th century CE, and it seems far-fetched to believe that this doctrine existed undocumented within Judaism from the time of the Assyrian empire (which, ironically, some scholars believe is the source of Jewish mysticism) until it “resurfaced” approximately 17 to 18 centuries later.⁴

Kabbalists can be defined as monistic panentheists.  They envision two aspects of God, (a) God Himself, whom they consider to be impersonal and unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God that created the universe and interacts with mankind.  They believe God’s existence is beyond anything that can be expressed in the material world, yet they believe all things are linked to God in perfect unity.  Rather than viewing these two aspects as a paradox, Kabbalists believe that through divine emanations they can come to see how they complement one another. ⁵

Kabbalah teaches that there are ten attributes with which God created the universe and reveals Himself, called the Ten Sefirot (literally, the Ten Emanations).  Kabbalists believe that the differences between these levels are not changes in God but in mankind’s ability to perceive God.  The ten levels are: Keter (will), Chochmah (wisdom), Binah (understanding), Chesed (loving kindness), Din (judgment), Tiferet (harmony), Netzach (victory), Hod (glory), Yesod (foundation), and Malchut (sovereignty).⁶

The Zohar teaches that there are three elements to the human soul: the nefesh, which is the lower “animal” part of the soul linked to instincts and bodily cravings, the ruach, the middle “spirit” soul containing moral virtues, and the neshamah, the higher “intellect” soul, which allows one to have awareness of God and to benefit from the afterlife.  The nefesh is said to enter the body at birth, whereas the ruach and neshamah are said to develop over time depending on the actions and beliefs of the individual.  Most Kabbalistic works assume a fundamental difference between Jewish and non-Jewish souls.  The Zohar posits that Gentile souls have an evil, demonic aspect to them that is not present in Jews.  Two additional parts of the soul, the chayyah (awareness of the divine life force) and yehidah (fullest union with God possible), are mentioned in the Raaya Meheimna, a section of teachings spread throughout the Zohar, but these higher levels of cognition are considered to be within the grasp of only a few chosen individuals.

1. Aryeh Kaplan “Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide” [↩]
2. The Written Law (The Torah) [↩]
3. Imbued with Holiness [↩]
4. Parpola S. (1993) “The Assyrian Tree of Life: Tracing the Origins of Jewish Monotheism and Greek Philosophy” Journal of Near Eastern Studies [↩]
5. JewishEncyclopedia.com - Bible Exegesis [↩]
6. http://www.newkabbalah.com/sefirot.html [↩]

This article is part of the series: Secrets of Christianity: Unearthed

God: the Evidence

Come again? What “evidence”?

In religion, man is assumed to be the most important thing in the “universe”, the special project of some deity. This has lead to religion ignoring observable facts and insisting that the earth is the “center” of the universe” and indeed that everything revolves around it. This baseless assumption defined how most religions and especially Christianity interacted with humanity and our world.

The heliocentric solar system was not unfamiliar to those in ancient times, or to those from other religions. Aristarchus of Samos wrote that he was furthering the theories of Heraclides Ponticus in the third century BC.¹ Muslim scholars did work to show that the earth rotates.² However, all of these early scientists were decried by contemporaries.³ How dare they say that the earth is not the center of the universe! This slowly started to change when instruments were developed to allow us to observe our world more accurately. Galileo saw the moons revolving around Jupiter.⁴ Copernicus came up with the data and formulas to demonstrate how we revolve.⁵ We then had to acknowledge that pretty stories meant nothing when reality was knocking on the door.

When Copernicus originally revealed his theories, they were met with interest but not yet aversion. However, they met opposition 3 years later when a Dominican monk denounced them in a work that indicated that the Bible was inerrant, the absolute truth of how the universe worked.⁶ Following that, Galileo dared to reveal that his telescope supported the heliocentric model. With such an “attack” against the infallibility of the Bible, and therefore Catholic Church, that which was acceptable as an idea became unacceptable as reality.⁷ Giordano Bruno was burnt at the stake for supporting Copernicus’ ideas and Galileo was convicted of heresy.⁸ Any heliocentric works were on the Vatican’s Index of Prohibited Books in 1616 and the specific books by Copernicus and Galileo were on that list until 1835.⁹

As you can see above, Copernicus did much to advance man’s knowledge of his world. In 1973, there was a celebration of the 500th anniversary of his birth.¹⁰ At this celebration, many scientific papers were presented by many of the preeminent scientists of that time. However, there was one paper presented that was not of this caliber. One of the articles in U.S. News and World Report’s special edition “Secrets of Christianity” mentions this one in its “God: the Evidence” article. One would assume that a magazine dedicated to pursuing the facts about things would have perhaps read this article over more closely, looking for facts to support the subject’s claims or making sure that questionable claims weren’t included. However, that is not the case.

This article begins with mentioning the august figures in attendance at that 1973 symposium. The author takes great pride in listing the names of Stephen Hawking, Roger Penrose, etc. However, it immediately insists that the “only” paper to be “remembered” from that conference was one by Brandon Carter, “Large Number Coincidences and the Anthropic Principle in Cosmology.”¹¹ Now, I suspect that there were many papers that were remembered from that conference. One, “Large Scale Anisotropy of the Cosmic Microwave Background” by R.B. Partridge,¹² did much for advancing Big Bang theories.

Dr. Carter’s idea was one that many apologists attempt to use today. The idea is that the universe, with its myriad laws and constants are “perfect” for human life, or as Dr. Carter put it, “[W]hat we can expect to observe must be restricted by the conditions for our presence as observers.” This has been claimed to “prove” that God exists, because there needs to be an “intelligence” that decided it wanted humans and it then created a universe to support those humans.

The article goes even further to claim that the theories based on observation of facts, such as evolutionary theory and the heliocentric fact, “explained the tone of despair and angst that came to characterize modern culture, the desperate feeling that humankind was along and without moorings, and above all, without God.” However, the article does nothing to show how this supposedly occurred. This is an excellent example of more baseless assumptions upon which religion builds its claims.

Baseless claims like this are rife throughout the article. It is claimed that “scientists began to notice a strange connection among a number of otherwise unexplained coincidences in physics.” This “connection” is supposedly the one “overriding fact”: “Such values had been necessary for the creation of life.” Now, a fact is a very specific thing, especially in the scientific world. A fact is a piece of information presented as having objective reality.¹³ Because we do not know exactly what is required for the creation of life — something that creationists are quite fond of reminding everyone — it cannot be claimed that it is known for a “fact” that the constants and laws of physics are indeed required for it. The article also does not cite who these “scientists” were, which is always a sign of a claim with no evidence to support it.

The article claims that the argument of “God did it” is a “simpler way of explaining” these constants and laws than the “exotic theories” of physicists. This could be a good assumption if one also believed that fairies made shoes for people in exchange for a bowl of milk rather than the “exotic theory” that cobblers make shoes.

Dr. Carter attempted to make his idea more scientifically palatable by attempting to claim that the “coincidences” that he claimed were too many to just be that, coincidences. However, there is no way to determine how many was “too many.” He also relied on an old idea about the universe. Once, it may have been considered simply “random” by 19th century thinkers, but no scientist thinks that the universe is totally random today nor is it likely that they did even back in 1973. Also, the author of the article has attempted to claim that “Darwin’s theory of “natural selection” could no longer be taken as an exhaustive explanation for the phenomenon of life. Again, these are common mistakes by apologists, using very outdated information and presenting half-truths, since evolutionary theory does not address abiogenesis as he attempts to call the “phenomenon of life.”

There are further attempts to claim that “20th century science is closer to in spirit to the vision of the Book of Genesis than anything offered since Copernicus.” Unless one takes it all completely as “metaphor” and shoehorns any definition one likes into it, it is not. If one does this, then what of the Bible is “metaphor” and what is literal? Why is one person’s “interpretation” better than another’s? The article also tries to claim that finding an origin to the universe is some kind of “scientific embarrassment” and it adds to this the lie that science agrees at all with this unsupported idea that the universe is “expressly designed for life.”

Unfortunately, this article is emblematic of many other Christian apologist arguments. They try to co-opt the terms and discoveries of science to make Christianity sound more plausible, which is especially ironic when “good Christians” didn’t believe any of this when the theories were new and had less evidence supporting them. The article attempts to say that the burden of proof is on those who don’t believe that “God did it.” However anyone knows that the person who proposes an idea is the one who must provide the proof that it is correct and none has been provided. Each scientific discovery pushes any deity farther and farther into the gaps that they try to exploit. Life is in the universe because that’s what those constants and laws just happen to allow to arise. If those constants and laws were different, we would either not be here or we would be here in a different form. The universe isn’t “perfect” for us at all. We are “perfect” for it.

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism [↩]
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism [↩]
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_affair [↩]
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo [↩]
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus [↩]
6. Rosen, Edward (1995). Copernicus and his Successors. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN 1 85285 071 X [↩]
7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_affair [↩]
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Bruno [↩]
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum [↩]
10. http://siarchives.si.edu/findingaids/FARU0500.HTM [↩]
11. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974IAUS…63..291C [↩]
12. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974IAUS…63..157P [↩]
13. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fact [↩]

In the late 19^th century, Charles Taze Russell, an American Protestant Evangelist from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, founded a religious movement known as the Bible Student movement.  He and his followers believed mainstream Christianity had been corrupted and that their movement was a restoration of first-century Christianity.  Russell was greatly interested in Biblical prophecy and came to adopt the eschatology of Nelson H. Barbour, who predicted Christ would return in 1873.  When Barbour’s prediction failed, he revised the year to 1874.¹ After this second disappointment, he decided Christ had indeed returned that year but had done so invisibly in heaven.  Russell adopted this belief and together with Barbour wrote the book The Three Worlds, in which they described their belief that in 1878 there would be a gathering of the saints to heaven and that 1914 would mark the end of Gentile control of Jerusalem and the end of rule by “human” governments. ²

In 1879, Russell broke ties with Barbour and began publishing his own magazine, Zion’s Watch Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence (now known as The Watchtower.) Russell then established Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society in 1881, a legal entity which still advises today’s Jehovah’s Witnesses.  “The Society” published a series of seven books (six written by Russell) entitled Studies in the Scriptures.  The early editions of these books mirrored many of Barbour’s claims, such as the “invisible” second coming of Jesus in 1874, a year he believed was marked by the lengths of the internal passages of the great pyramid of Egypt.  Russell wrote that the great pyramid at Gizeh is God’s Stone Witness and Prophet and that the Pleiades star cluster is the place of the eternal throne of God.³

After Russell’s death in 1916, there was a struggle for power amongst the Board of Directors for The Society.  The group that followed the original Watch Tower Society adopted the name “Jehovah’s Witnesses,” in reference to Isaiah 43:10: “Ye are my witnesses, saith the LORD, and my servant whom I have chosen: that ye may know and believe me, and understand that I am he: before me there was no God formed, neither shall there be after me.”  The name Jehovah is an English form of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton YHWH, and Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that making this name known to others is a requirement for true worship.

Most people are probably familiar with Jehovah’s Witnesses through their proselytization efforts.  Witnesses are required to devote as much time as possible to going door-to-door, distributing literature from the Watchtower publications.  In order to be considered members, they must report monthly on the time they’ve spent preaching.  In 2007, Jehovah’s Witnesses reported an attendance of over 17 million at their annual memorial celebration of Christ’s death.  However, these are merely considered adherents.  About 7 million are considered worthy of the title member.⁴

The memorial celebration, held in March or April, is their most important annual event and the only celebration they believe is sanctioned by the Bible.  They typically do observe weddings, funerals and anniversaries, but religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Thanksgiving and Christmas are considered unchristian and are not celebrated.  They consider such celebrations, as well as patriotism, to be tantamount to worshipping an idol.  They are expected to obey the laws of the country in which they reside, but they refuse to serve in the military, salute any flag, or sing any nationalistic songs.⁵

Jehovah’s Witnesses consider the Bible to be the inspired word of God and do interpret many scriptures literally, but they believe that much of it is merely symbolic.  They consider the New World translation, first published by their own Watchtower Bible and Tract Society in 1950, to be the most correct translation.  They rely on a “Governing Body” of Jehovah’s Witnesses to interpret scripture correctly and are not permitted to interpret anything themselves.  They are forbidden from reading any material that is not sanctioned by the Watchtower Society, and they are strongly discouraged from attending colleges and universities.

Jehovah’s Witnesses believe Jesus‘ death was necessary to atone for the sins brought upon the world by Adam and that he is the means of salvation for all those who are worthy, but they reject the doctrine of the Trinity, believing that Jesus is the archangel Michael and God’s first creation.  Instead of a cross, they believe he died on a “torture stake.”  They line up with typical conservative Christians in believing that homosexuality and premarital sex are sins, abortion is murder, gambling is sinful, and the husband is considered the final authority in the family structure.⁶  They believe that a war of Armageddon is imminent wherein the wicked will be destroyed.  They differ from most Christians in that they believe blood is not to be eaten, stored, or transfused.  Any Jehovah’s Witness who accepts a blood transfusion will be subject to organized communal shunning, and many have chosen death because of this.  They also differ in that they do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment, instead believing that the wicked that die are truly dead and have no consciousness.   They believe that only 144,000 people will get to heaven and that these will be co-rulers with Jesus over the rest of the humans who manage to survive the Armageddon.  Since many have already died whom they consider to be worthy of heaven, the vast majority of Jehovah’s Witnesses expect to live eternally on the earth, after it is renewed to a paradisiacal state, not in heaven.⁷

1. Barbour, N.H. (1874). The Midnight Cry and Herald of the Morning [↩]
2. Russell, C.T. (1876). “Gentile Times: When Do They End?“. Bible Examiner [↩]
3. Russell, C.T. (1902). “The Time is At Hand.” Watch Tower [↩]
4. Wah, C., (June 2001) “Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Responsibility of Religious Freedom: The European Experience,” Journal of Church and State [↩]
5. (September 2002) “Salvation Belongs to Jehovah.” Watchtower: 21. [↩]
6. (1995) “Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life.” Watchtower. 120. [↩]
7. (July 1998) “Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing.” Watchtower: 19–24. [↩]

This article is part of the series: Secrets of Christianity: Unearthed

“Today’s East-West dynamic began when Europe first invaded the Holy Land.”

That was the sub-heading for this article in the U.S. News and World Report. I found this set the tone for the rest of the article, which essentially set out to prove that Muslims are filled with hate and distorting reality in drawing comparisons between the Crusades and modern events.

The author states, “In the Arab and Muslim world, the Crusades have made an unfortunate rhetorical comeback.” He posits that their views have been “distorted almost beyond recognition by rhetoric and misunderstanding.” He accuses “angry Muslim nationalists” of adopting the Crusades as a “convenient metaphor.” He quotes historian Jonathan Riley-Smith, who claims the Muslims “turned the Western memory of the Crusades on its head and demonized it.” But what of the West? What of today’s Christians? After September 11^th, George W. Bush told the nation, “This crusade, this war on terrorism, is going to take awhile.”¹ When Jerusalem was captured from the Turks in 1917, British general Sir Edmund Allenby² proclaimed, “today the wars of the Crusades are completed.” Surely the author would have similar criticism for statements such as these? No, instead he insists, “Undoubtedly, George W. Bush had a different sense of the term in mind.” And as for Sir Allenby? Well, it was understandable, since the colonial powers considered the Crusaders to be their “ideological forebears.” Besides, according to the author, the Crusades weren’t very important to the Muslims before Sir Allenby’s time: “Before Europe’s colonial expansion into the Middle East, Muslim chroniclers paid little attention to the Crusades.” I see little reason to believe that anyone, from East or West, cannot plainly understand the horrible atrocities committed by Christians during the Crusades, yet according to this article, the East is primarily to blame for “demonizing” our conception of them.

The article refers to the Crusaders as “faithful,” “united under the cross” and “motivated by genuine religious feeling.” Riley-Smith is again quoted: “West European Catholics believed they could aid their salvation by fighting the infidel in the East. [Crusading is] as much a penance as fasting on bread and water.” In researching Jonathan Riley-Smith I found, unsurprisingly, that his views are greatly at odds with many other scholarly perceptions of the Crusades. He believes the Crusades were primarily a response to the aggression of Islam, and that the Crusaders were sincere and pious and demonstrated great personal sacrifice.³ The author obviously agrees when he refers to knights Godfrey of Bouillon and Tancred as “deeply religious.” He claims the belief that Crusaders may have been motivated by greed or land has been overturned. Yet, the history itself tells another story.

In 1095, the Byzantine Emperor, Alexios I Komnenos, sent his ambassadors to Pope Urban II to request help in taking Asia Minor from the Seljuk Turks. The Pope then called for the Council of Clermont, and there preached the First Crusade. Alexios met each leader personally to secure an oath that any conquered lands would be handed over to the Byzantine Empire.⁴ Yet, not one of these leaders intended on keeping their oath to Alexios. One by one, they each took the captured territories for themselves, and many of them became the leaders of these territories. Tancred actually refused to take the oath at all. So, were these knights “deeply religious” as U.S. News claims? Probably. But was their faith a replacement for greed? Absolutely not.

In one final jab at the Muslims, U.S. News purports that the industry, education, and culture that the Europeans gained as a result of their contact with the Arab world actually overshadows the atrocities they committed. He quotes Georgetown University’s John Voll: “Violent interactions were paralleled by economic and conceptual exchanges. In some ways the Crusades’ positive intellectual dimensions outweigh the negative impact.” He then quotes author Janet Abu-Lughod: “The Crusades…did integrate European travelers and traders into an ongoing world system. By stimulating an interest in the goods of the East, they had a double-back effect on the development of European economics.” U.S. News even takes these two comments a step further: “Even the Europeans’ increasing sophistication did little to redeem them in the eyes of the Muslims whose land they occupied and controlled.” I can’t think of a single reason why it should. Their families had been murdered, their holy sites destroyed, their land and homes stolen, but the author expects them to have been in awe of the Christians’ increasing “sophistication”? It’s hard for me to believe that U.S. News cannot recognize that the only people positively impacted in any way by the Crusades were the Christians, not the Muslims. For the East, the negative most certainly outweighs the positive, but that is not being considered in this article. I would implore anyone to consider the bias displayed here before giving any type of support to the U.S. News and World Report.

1. http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010916-2.html [↩]
2. http://www.firstworldwar.com/bio/allenby.htm [↩]
3. http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/jonathanrileysmith.html [↩]
4. A History of the Byzantine State and Society by Warren Treadgold, Stanford University Press, 1997 [↩]

This article is part of the series: Secrets of Christianity: Unearthed

In the 2007 special edition of US News & World Report, titled Secrets of Christianity, various references are made to ancient biblical texts.¹ These ancient texts are believed to be some of the original texts that comprise the religious books of Judaism and Christianity and provide historical information for the time period surrounding the formation of both religions. Given the significance of these works, the editors have allowed only passing references to be made to the content and context of these sources. Why do these ancient texts merit mostly passing references?

The most frequent references are made to the texts found near Nag Hammadi in Egypt and those of Qumran in Israel.² The Nag Hammadi texts are in better condition and are easier for scholars to discern their contents because they are a later edition than those of Qumran. However, the Qumran texts, known as the Dead Sea Scrolls, are considered the original biblical texts leading to Judaism and Christianity.³

What are the Dead Sea Scrolls?

The “scrolls” consist of thousands of documents found in caves located around the Dead Sea which were discovered between 1947 and 1956 by Bedouin shepherds and archaeologists. At most, there are 12 intact scrolls; the remainder is thousands of fragments of scrolls ranging in size from nearly a full page to pieces that are as small as fingernails. There is even one piece of pottery, known as an ostracon, which is inscribed in such as a way as to merit inclusion as subject material belonging to the scrolls. Together, this library of “inscriptional materials” consists of over 800 texts (once the thousands of documents were pieced together in a reasonably meaningful way – many still have not been).

What do the Dead Sea Scrolls represent?

The scrolls, written between 250 BCE and 68 CE, are the earliest known texts forming Judaism and Christianity. The scrolls are not complete religious works, nor are they complete libraries representing either religion. Nevertheless, these works are in their original forms and not subjugated by later interpretations, which were often biased by future languages and politics.

Scholars assume the scrolls complete part of an ambiguous historical period that coincides with early Jewish history. Only about 25% of the texts are considered biblical as all of the books of the Hebrew bible are contained within the scrolls except the book of Esther (noted by Shanks to be the only book which does not reference God – which by implication was either intentionally deleted from the collection or just coincidentally missing). The remainders are considered non-biblical in the sense that they are not canonical texts of any particular bible. The texts appear to reference various genres but include hymns, psalms, legal theories, non-religious literature and more. The Dead Sea Scrolls constitute a library, just not an entirely religious library.

Why were the scrolls hidden?

In ancient times, the regions comprising much of modern-day Israel, as well as parts of Jordan and Syria, were under constant conflict and shifting political control, culminating in the eventual invasion and occupation by the Romans in 70 CE. As a result of these conflicts, it is likely that these documents were moved from more theologically important locations, such as the religious temples in Jerusalem, to the locations in the caves surrounding the Dead Sea for safekeeping. For scholars of Judaism and Christianity, the year 70 CE, the year of Roman invasion, represents a theological and historical black hole because of missing documents that would otherwise provide a smoother join to the other works that date from the same period. In essence, a library of documents was moved, hidden and later forgotten forever only to be discovered many centuries later. The scrolls became an unintended time capsule, and no one is claiming divine intervention as the source or cause of their seclusion.

Why haven’t I heard more about the scrolls?

There is so much controversy over the Dead Sea Scrolls that any usefulness they represent is potentially obfuscated by the manner in which they were obtained, controlled and interpreted.

Because of the age of the scrolls and the manner in which they were stored (many were rolled up and stored inside vases and then stored in caves until discovered), the texts were subject to the ravages of weather and time. They disintegrated into thousands upon thousands of fragments that are, even today, being reassembled by appointed scholars. For much of their known existence, the scrolls were subjected to modern abuse through mishandling and inappropriate storage, as well as transport during wars between Israel, Egypt and Jordan. The scrolls continued to suffer the same problems but in different centuries.

Furthermore, the texts were first under control by Bedouin shepherds who had little knowledge of their importance. It is unknown what the Bedouin did with the first texts they discovered because some scrolls were found in the possession of Israeli antique dealers. To keep the texts from becoming further fragmented worldwide and preventing their reassembly, various groups joined to provide payment to the Bedouins as a method of securing the texts for study. For many years, various scholars and archaeologists were in possession and control of individual scrolls and rarely allowed anyone to see the contents of the scroll(s) in their possession. In the early 1990s, their hands were forced to share the contents of the scrolls when it was revealed that various non-scholars had possession of photographs which showed the details of the scroll contents. Actual physical inspection of the scrolls is still narrowly restricted and is often not possible because the scrolls have not received proper care since their discovery. The scrolls continue to deteriorate and some scrolls have become useless scraps of archaeology.

How do the scrolls relate to religion today?

First, one must ask which version of Judaism or Christianity may be impacted. These religious groups, especially the Christian ones, splintered over time and implement their belief systems differently. What impacts one may not impact another. Second, one must ask which book each of these groups uses to determine which tenets of belief to follow. The books of their bibles have been written reinterpretations of past versions and ultimately, the first interpretation of the texts of the scrolls. Every subsequent interpretation breeds a mutated set of beliefs. Religion has become a moving target.

Given the multitude of beliefs even within one branch of Judaism or Christianity, it is likely that the leaders of each belief system have no desire to have their belief systems fundamentally altered by a more accurate interpretation of the original texts. Even more recent corrections to previous interpretations have had little impact on how a particular religious belief is exercised. It is either ignored or derided. It appears that to correct interpretations of previous texts requires the formation of a new splinter version of the religion. Change comes only when change is desired.

The scrolls have little impact on today’s religions because most of the information held by the scrolls is non-biblical.⁴ The reassembled scrolls reveal circumstances that lead to the formation of Judaism and Christianity and of early religious and secular life. They reveal that many of the Christian traditions were actually Jewish traditions that continued even by identified Christians. Some traditions were later dropped by Jews and others were changed multiple times through separate Christian transformations.

Third, what level of importance can be given to documents that are so revered yet so poorly cared for? For what reason would God allow such treasured documents to be stored in forgotten places and disintegrate into nothing? These are the most important questions of all. Something as important as the original biblical texts for the religion of an omnipotent god should easily withstand the test of time. Instead, they have been largely forgotten, mishandled or guarded with the secrecy of the unknown. This situation hardly inspires one to think greatly of the importance of the scrolls to religious life, ancient or modern.

The editors of US News & World Report show little regard for what the Dead Sea Scrolls really mean for the significance of religion. Such an edition dedicated to religion should have had more than a passing reference to the most important documents of the foundation of Judaism and Christianity. While the documents may provide proof that ancient peoples believed in the Abrahamic God, and referencing the scrolls is appropriate for substantiating the source of the belief, the editors make no attempt to explore the circumstances of these ancient texts by themselves nor the potential they have to create skepticism for any of the Abrahamic faiths.

1. Mysteries of Faith: Secrets of Christianity. US News & World Report 2007, p. 7 [↩]
2. pp 8, 16. [↩]
3. Shanks, Understanding the dead sea scrolls. Random House, 1992, pp. xv, xix. [↩]
4. Shanks, xxi. [↩]

In late 2007, well in time for the Christmas season, U.S. News & World Report began having book and magazine sellers across the nation stock their shelves with a “Collector’s Edition” magazine entitled: Mysteries of Faith: Secrets of Christianity.¹

The cover indicates some of the content: The Real Jesus, Miracles, The Lost Gospels, The Three Marys, Judas, Exorcisms, The Inquisition, Apocalypse 2012?

The innards have a frightening resemblance to a Sunday school lesson book. A painting from the late 1800s depicts what the magazine calls the “traditional view of Jesus”² as he “teaches a penitent sinner about God’s mercy.”³ Despite asking the question whether Jesus actually existed (at all, or as described in scriptural accounts), the language of the articles leans heavily toward lack of doubt, often describing Jesus in ways that mingle praise, admiration, and worship. “The most fascinating of all [the biblical] figures, of course, is Jesus himself, a brilliant, witty, intensely attractive, enigmatic, and visionary man, whose life, death, and Resurrection will continue to invite either speculation, skepticism, or fervent belief.” ⁴

“Jesus may have calmed the storm in a boat like the one at left.”⁵

“Today, there is broad consensus among even the most skeptical of scholars that Jesus probably did perform feats that would have been perceived as miracles at the time.”⁶

“”There is little doubt that Jesus performed exorcisms as they were understood in his time,” says John J. Rousseau, an archaeologist. “It was just a natural thing to do for an itinerant charismatic healer and teacher… and he was not the only one to do it.” ⁷

This apparent default assumption that Jesus lived as depicted in the bible is complemented by the magazine’s continued mischaracterization of skepticism and reason. “As recently as 25 years ago, a reasonable person weighing the purely scientific evidence on the issue [of the origin of the universe and humans] would likely have come down on the side of skepticism. That is no longer the case. The burden of proof has shifted. The barrier that modern science appeared to erect to faith has fallen. Of course, the anthropic principle tells us nothing about the Person of God or the existence of an afterlife. But it does offer as strong an indication as reason and science alone could be expected to provide that God exists.” ⁸ Yet, U.S. News fails to justify such a broad and unlikely assertion that a reasonable person today would, by default, believe in God, putting skepticism, reason, and science aside, apparently waiting for them to disprove God. The entire magazine reads as if it has chosen its authors and sources specifically based on this flawed principle.

It would not be an issue if this were a Christian publication, indicating that it was written from a Christian perspective (with an air of, but not actual, skepticism). However, this is U.S. News & World Report, which considers itself “the leader in delivering reliable information that [its] audience can act on, whether it’s voting for president or selecting a healthcare plan. [Its] credible, trusted content sets us apart—and it also propels [it] forward.” ⁹ The magazine well-known for its school rankings ¹⁰, boasts on its cover, “Rated America’s most credible print news source.”

Based on what seems to be U.S. News’ obvious pro-Christian bias in its self-proclaimed credible and trusted content, State of Protest has taken upon itself the duty to examine some of the articles in this magazine and address them in a scholarly manner to determine if U.S. News & World Report really should be calling itself “the most credible” anything when it publishes Collector’s Edition magazines such as this.

Keep an eye out for State of Protest articles headed “Secrets” for the continuation of this review.

-Procrustes

Also see:¹¹

1. Mysteries of Faith: Secrets of Christianity. U.S.News & World Report 2007 [↩]
2. p. 4 [↩]
3. pp. 2-3 [↩]
4. p. 11 [↩]
5. p. 11 [↩]
6. p. 18 [↩]
7. p. 18 [↩]
8. p. 75 [↩]
9. http://mediakit.usnews.com/brand/history.php?openNode=0,0 [↩]
10. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/rankindex_brief.php [↩]
11. http://jesusdynasty.com/blog/2007/12/13/jesus-dynasty-profiled-in-usnewsworldreport/ [↩]

The word ‘Scientology’ comes from the Latin word ‘scio’ meaning ‘knowing in the fullest sense of the word’ and the Greek word ‘logos’ meaning ‘study of.’ The doctrine of Scientology was recorded by L. Ron Hubbard in 500,000 pages of writings, 6,500 reels of tape and 42 films. This doctrine reflects the influence of the Hindu concept of karma, as well as the psychological theories of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and William Sargant. Scientology does not have a single book that is the equivalent of the Bible or the Quran, but the study of Scientology may be done chronologically through its basic books and lectures.¹

Scientology states that it is fully compatible with all existing major world religions, but in fact, Scientology only allows a passive formal membership in a second religion. Because of the major differences in beliefs and practices between Scientology and most major world religions, to call them compatible is disingenuous. Followers are not permitted to participate in other religious activities or ceremonies outside of Scientology. They do, however, celebrate many of our cultural holidays such as Christmas and New Year’s, although these celebrations remain primarily secular.²

Scientologists believe that humans survive across eight dynamics, “Self,” “Family and Sex,” “Group,” “Humanity,” “The Animal Kingdom,” “The Physical Universe,” “Spirits,” and “God or Infinity.” They believe all of these dynamics must be considered equally. The Scientology cross, which is often used to represent the Church of Scientology, has eight sides which represent these eight dynamics.³ Scientology offers no specific dogma, but Scientologists believe the nature of a Supreme Being is revealed to individuals as they become more spiritually aware. They believe that a universal life force (theta) exists in all humans and that humans (thetans) are capable of achieving a nearly godlike state through Scientology practices. One of these practices is Dianetics, which Hubbard claimed could “invariably cure all psychosomatic ills and human aberrations.”⁴ According to Hubbard, people become “aberrated” by traumatic incidents and bad decisions (even those that occurred in past lives; Scientologists believe we are immortal) and must free themselves of this trauma through a process called “auditing.” They believe that through this process, they can achieve states of increasingly greater mental awareness, called Pre-Clear, Clear, and Operating Thetan. They believe Operating Thetans have the power to control matter, energy, space, time, thought, and life.⁵

Most auditing sessions employ a device called the Hubbard Electropsychometer. Scientologists believe this “E-Meter” can help an individual achieve a state of Clear, and eventually Operating Thetan, through measuring changes in the electrical resistance of the mind. To do this, approximately 0.5 volts are passed through a pair of tin-plated tubes held by the Pre-Clear and attached to the E-Meter by wires. It is believed that this aids the auditor in identifying engrams (unconscious, painful memories), incidents (alien interventions from past lives), and implants (engrams which are inflicted deliberately and with evil intent). According to Hubbard, extraterrestrial dictatorships such as Helatrobus attempted to brainwash and control the population trillions of years ago through these implants, and this is the derivation of many of our past traumas. Hubbard wrote extensive accounts of complex extraterrestrial civilizations and their interventions in earthly events, collectively described as “space opera.” Scientology’s Trementina Base has a huge symbol carved into the ground which marks a ‘return point’ for members, so they can find the founder’s works when they travel here in the future from other galaxies.⁶

It is very difficult for Scientologists to advance into the eight Operating Thetan (OT) levels of study. Those who participate in these advanced courses are strictly forbidden from discussing or disclosing their contents. However, in 1995, a former member published excerpts and descriptions of these materials online, and they were quickly circulated by the mainstream media, so we now have access to much of the teachings.⁷ Those who reach OT level III are told of the story of Xenu, an alien who lived 75 million years ago and was the ruler of the “Galactic Confederacy.” According to these teachings, he brought billions of people to Earth in spacecraft, stacked them around volcanoes and blew them up with hydrogen bombs. Their souls then clustered together and stuck to the bodies of the living. Scientologists believe that many of the physical illnesses modern-day humans experience are caused by these clustered alien souls, or “Body Thetans,” who continue to stick to us today.

1. Bridge Publications: The Basics [↩]
2. Steve Bruce: Cathedrals to cults: the evolving forms of the religious life. In: Paul Heelas (Hrsg.): Religion, Modernity, and Postmodernity, Blackwell, Oxford 1998, pp. 19-35, 23. [↩]
3. Introduction to Scientology Ethics, 2007 edition, pg. 12 [↩]
4. Hubbard, “Dianetics,” Astounding Science Fiction, May 1950 [↩]
5. http://www.beliefnet.com/story/80/story_8057_1.html [↩]
6. Leiby, Richard Scientology church’s mark inscribed in N.M. desert scrub, published November 29, 2005 in the Free New Mexican [↩]
7. Reitman, Janet, “Inside Scientology: Unlocking the complex code of America’s most mysterious religion,” Rolling Stone, 2006 [↩]